Copyright (c) Hyperion Entertainment and contributors.
Exec Memory Allocation
Contents
Exec Memory Allocation
Exec manages all of the free memory currently available in the system. Using linked list structures, Exec keeps track of memory and provides the functions to allocate and access it.
When an application needs some memory, it can either declare the memory statically within the program or it can ask Exec for some memory. When Exec receives a request for memory, it looks through its list of free memory regions to find a suitably sized block that matches the size and attributes requested.
Memory Functions
Normally, an application uses the AllocMem() function to ask for memory:
APTR AllocMem(ULONG byteSize, ULONG attributes);
The byteSize argument is the amount of memory the application needs and attributes is a bit field which specifies any special memory characteristics (described later). If AllocMem() is successful, it returns a pointer to a block of memory. The memory allocation will fail if the system cannot find a big enough block with the requested attributes. If AllocMem() fails, it returns NULL.
Because the system only keeps track of how much free memory is available and not how much is in use, it has no idea what memory has been allocated by any task. This means an application has to explicitly return, or deallocate, any memory it has allocated so the system can return that memory to the free memory list. If an application does not return a block of memory to the system, the system will not be able to reallocate that memory to some other task. That block of memory will be lost until the Amiga is reset. If you are using AllocMem() to allocate memory, a call to FreeMem() will return that memory to the system:
VOID FreeMem(APTR mymemblock, ULONG byteSize);
Here mymemblock is a pointer to the memory block the application is returning to the system and byteSize is the same size that was passed when the memory was allocated with AllocMem().
Unlike some compiler memory allocation functions, the Amiga system memory allocation functions return memory blocks that are at least longword aligned. This means that the allocated memory will always start on an address which is at least evenly divisible by four. This alignment makes the memory suitable for any system structures or buffers which require word or longword alignment, and also provides optimal alignment for stacks and memory copying.
Memory Attributes
When asking the system for memory, an application can ask for memory with certain attributes. The currently supported flags are listed below. Flags marked "V37" are new memory attributes for Release 2. Allocations which specify these new bits may fail on earlier systems.
This indicates that there is no requirement for either Fast or Chip memory. In this case, while there is Fast memory available, Exec will only allocate Fast memory. Exec will allocate Chip memory if there is not enough Fast memory.
This indicates the application wants a block of chip memory, meaning it wants memory addressable by the Amiga custom chips. Chip memory is required for any data that will be accessed by custom chip DMA. This includes screen memory, images that will be blitted, sprite data, copper lists, and audio data, and pre-V37 floppy disk buffers. If this flag is not specified when allocating memory for these types of data, your code will fail on machines with expanded memory.
This indicates a memory block outside of the range that the special purpose chips can access. "FAST" means that the special-purpose chips do not have access to the memory and thus cannot cause processor bus contention, therefore processor access will likely be faster. Since the flag specifies memory that the custom chips cannot access, this flag is mutually exclusive with the MEMF_CHIP flag. If you specify the MEMF_FAST flag, your allocation will fail on any Amiga that has only CHIP memory. Use MEMF_ANY if you would prefer FAST memory.
This indicates that the memory should be accessible to other tasks. Although this flag doesn't do anything right now, using this flag will help ensure compatibility with possible future features of the OS (like virtual memory and memory protection).
This indicates that the memory should be initialized with zeros.
This indicates memory which is located on the motherboard which is not initialized on reset.
This indicates that the memory should be allocated within the 24 bit address space, so that the memory can be used in Zorro-II expansion device DMA transactions. This bit is for use by Zorro-II DMA devices only. It is not for general use by applications.
Indicates that the memory list should be searched backwards for the highest address memory chunk which can be used for the memory allocation.
If an application does not specify any attributes when allocating memory, the system tries to satisfy the request with the first memory available on the system memory lists, which is MEMF_FAST if available, followed by MEMF_CHIP.
| Make Sure You Have Memory.Always check the result of any memory allocation to be sure the type and amount of memory requested is available. Failure to do so will lead to trying to use an non-valid pointer. |
Allocating System Memory
The following examples show how to allocate memory.
APTR apointer,anotherptr, yap;
if (!(apointer = AllocMem(100, MEMF_ANY)))
{ /* COULDN'T GET MEMORY, EXIT */ }
AllocMem()
returns the address of the first byte of a memory block that is at least 100 bytes in size or NULL if there is not that much free memory. Because the requirement field is specified as MEMF_ANY (zero), memory will be allocated from any one of the system-managed memory regions.
if (!(anotherptr = (APTR)AllocMem(1000, MEMF_CHIP | MEMF_CLEAR)))
{ /* COULDN'T GET MEMORY, EXIT */ }
The example above allocates only chip-accessible memory, which the system fills with zeros before it lets the application use the memory. If the system free memory list does not contain enough contiguous memory bytes in an area matching your requirements, AllocMem() returns a zero. You must check for this condition.
If you are using Release 2, you can use the AllocVec() function to allocate memory. In addition to allocating a block of memory, this function keeps track of the size of the memory block, so your application doesn’t have to remember it when it deallocates that memory block. The AllocVec() function allocates a little more memory to store the size of the memory allocation request.
if (!(yap = (APTR)AllocVec(512, MEMF_CLEAR)))
{ /* COULDN'T GET MEMORY, EXIT */ }
Freeing System Memory
The following examples free the memory chunks shown in the previous calls to AllocMem().
FreeMem(apointer, 100); FreeMem(anotherptr, 1000);
A memory block allocated with AllocVec() must be returned to the system pool with the FreeVec(). This function uses the stored size in the allocation to free the memory block, so there is no need to specify the size of the memory block to free.
FreeVec(yap);
FreeMem() and FreeVec() return no status. However, if you attempt to free a memory block in the middle of a chunk that the system believes is already free, you will cause a system crash. Applications must free the same size memory blocks that they allocated. An allocated block may not be deallocated as smaller pieces. Due to the internal way the system rounds up and aligns allocations. Partial deallocations can corrupt the system memory list.
| Leave Memory Allocations Out Of Interrupt Code. Do not allocate or deallocate system memory from within interrupt code. The "Exec Interrupts" chapter explains that an interrupt may occur at any time, even during a memory allocation process. As a result, system data structures may not be internally consistent at this time. |
Memory Information Functions
The memory information routines AvailMem() and TypeOfMem() can provide the amount of memory available in the system, and the attributes of a particular block of memory.
Memory Requirements
The same attribute flags used in memory allocation routines are valid for the memory information routines. There is also an additional flag, MEMF_LARGEST, which can be used in the AvailMem() routine to find out what the largest available memory block of a particular type is. Specifying the MEMF_TOTAL flag will return the total amount of memory currently available.
Calling Memory Information Functions
The following example shows how to find out how much memory of a particular type is available.
ULONG size; size = AvailMem(MEMF_CHIP|MEMF_LARGEST);
AvailMem() returns the size of the largest chunk of available chip memory.
| AvailMem() May Not Be Totally Accurate. Because of multitasking, the return value from AvailMem() may be inaccurate by the time you receive it. |
The following example shows how to determine the type of memory of a specified memory address.
ULONG memtype;
memtype = TypeOfMem((APTR)0x090000);
if ((memtype & MEMF_CHIP) == MEMF_CHIP) { /* ... It's chip memory ... */ }
TypeOfMem() returns the attributes of the memory at a specific address. If it is passed an invalid memory address, TypeOfMem() returns NULL. This routine is normally used to determine if a particular chunk of memory is in chip memory.
Using Memory Copy Functions
For memory block copies, the CopyMem() and CopyMemQuick() functions can be used.
Copying System Memory
The following samples show how to use the copying routines.
APTR source, target; source = AllocMem(1000, MEMF_CLEAR); target = AllocMem(1000, MEMF_CHIP); CopyMem(source, target, 1000);
CopyMem() copies the specified number of bytes from the source data region to the target data region. The pointers to the regions can be aligned on arbitrary address boundaries. CopyMem() will attempt to copy the memory as efficiently as it can according to the alignment of the memory blocks, and the amount of data that it has to transfer. These functions are optimized for copying large blocks of memory which can result in unnecessary overhead if used to transfer very small blocks of memory.
CopyMemQuick(source, target, 1000);
CopyMemQuick() performs an optimized copy of the specified number of bytes from the source data region to the target data region. The source and target pointers must be longword aligned and the size (in bytes) must be divisible by four.
| Not All Copies Are Supported. Neither CopyMem() nor CopyMemQuick() supports copying between regions that overlap. |
Summary of System Controlled Memory Handling Routines
These are system-wide memory allocation and deallocation routines. They use a memory free-list owned and managed by the system.
This routine returns the number of free bytes in a specified type of memory.
This routine returns the memory attributes of a specified memory address.
CopyMem() is a general purpose memory copy routine. CopyMemQuick() is an optimized version of CopyMemQuick(), but has restrictions on the size and alignment of the arguments.
Allocating Multiple Memory Blocks
Exec provides the routines AllocEntry() and FreeEntry() to allocate multiple memory blocks in a single call.
AllocEntry() accepts a data structure called a MemList, which contains the information about the size of the memory blocks to be allocated and the requirements, if any, that you have regarding the allocation.
The MemList structure is found in the include file <exec/memory.h> and is defined as follows:
struct MemList
{
struct Node ml_Node;
UWORD ml_NumEntries; /* number of MemEntrys */
struct MemEntry ml_ME[1]; /* where the MemEntrys begin*/
};
allows you to link together multiple MemLists. However, the node is ignored by the routines AllocEntry() and FreeEntry().
tells the system how many MemEntry sets are contained in this MemList. Notice that a MemList is a variable-length structure and can contain as many sets of entries as you wish.
The MemEntry structure looks like this:
struct MemEntry
{
union {
ULONG meu_Reqs; /* the AllocMem requirements */
APTR meu_Addr; /* address of your memory */
} me_Un;
ULONG me_Length; /* the size of this request */
};
Sample Code for Allocating Multiple Memory Blocks
Here's an example of showing how to use the AllocEntry() with multiple blocks of memory.
;/* allocentry.c - Execute me to compile me with SAS C 5.10
LC -b1 -cfistq -v -y -j73 allocentry.c
Blink FROM LIB:c.o,allocentry.o TO allocentry LIBRARY LIB:LC.lib,LIB:Amiga.lib
quit ;
allocentry.c - example of allocating several memory areas.
*/
#include <exec/types.h>
#include <exec/memory.h>
#include <clib/exec_protos.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#ifdef LATTICE
int CXBRK(void) { return(0); } /* Disable Lattice CTRL/C handling */
void chkabort(void) { return; } /* really */
#endif
#define ALLOCERROR 0x80000000
struct MemList *memlist; /* pointer to a MemList structure */
struct MemBlocks /* define a new structure because C cannot initialize unions */
{
struct MemList mn_head; /* one entry in the header */
struct MemEntry mn_body[3]; /* additional entries follow directly as */
} memblocks; /* part of the same data structure */
VOID main(VOID)
{
memblocks.mn_head.ml_NumEntries = 4; /* 4! Since the MemEntry starts at 1! */
/* Describe the first piece of memory we want. Because of our MemBlocks structure */
/* setup, we reference the first MemEntry differently when initializing it. */
memblocks.mn_head.ml_ME[0].me_Reqs = MEMF_CLEAR;
memblocks.mn_head.ml_ME[0].me_Length = 4000;
memblocks.mn_body[0].me_Reqs = MEMF_CHIP | MEMF_CLEAR; /* Describe the other pieces of */
memblocks.mn_body[0].me_Length = 100000; /* memory we want. Additional */
memblocks.mn_body[1].me_Reqs = MEMF_PUBLIC | MEMF_CLEAR; /* MemEntries are initialized this */
memblocks.mn_body[1].me_Length = 200000; /* way. If we wanted even more en- */
memblocks.mn_body[2].me_Reqs = MEMF_PUBLIC; /* tries, we would need to declare */
memblocks.mn_body[2].me_Length = 25000; /* a larger MemEntry array in our */
/* MemBlocks structure. */
memlist = (struct MemList *)AllocEntry((struct MemList *)&memblocks);
if ((ULONG)memlist & ALLOCERROR) /* 'error' bit 31 is set (see below). */
{
printf("AllocEntry FAILED\n");
exit(200);
}
/* We got all memory we wanted. Use it and call FreeEntry() to free it */
printf("AllocEntry succeeded - now freeing all allocated blocks\n");
FreeEntry(memlist);
}
AllocEntry() returns a pointer to a new MemList of the same size as the MemList that you passed to it. For example, ROM code can provide a MemList containing the requirements of a task and create a RAM-resident copy of the list containing the addresses of the allocated entries. The pointer to the MemList is used as the argument for FreeEntry() to free the memory blocks.
Result of Allocating Multiple Memory Blocks
The MemList created by AllocEntry() contains MemEntry entries. MemEntrys are defined by a union statement, which allows one memory space to be defined in more than one way.
If AllocEntry() returns a value with bit 31 clear, then all of the meu_Addr positions in the returned MemList will contain valid memory addresses meeting the requirements you have provided. To use this memory area, you would use code similar to the following:
#define ALLOCERROR 0x80000000
struct MemList *ml;
APTR data, moredata;
if ( ! ((ULONG)ml & ALLOCERROR))) /* After calling AllocEntry to allocate ml */
{
data = ml->ml_ME[0].me_Addr;
moredata = ml->ml_ME[1].me_Addr;
}
else exit(200); /* error during AllocEntry */
If AllocEntry() has problems while trying to allocate the memory you have requested, instead of the address of a new MemList, it will return the memory requirements value with which it had the problem. Bit 31 of the value returned will be set, and no memory will be allocated. Entries in the list that were already allocated will be freed. For example, a failed allocation of cleared Chip memory (MEMF_CLEAR | MEMF_CHIP) could be indicated with 0x80010002, where bit 31 indicates failure, bit 16 is the MEMF_CLEAR flag and bit 1 is the MEMF_CHIP flag.
Multiple Memory Blocks and Tasks
If you want to take advantage of Exec's automatic cleanup, use the MemList and AllocEntry() facility to do your dynamic memory allocation.
In the Task control block structure, there is a list header named tc_MemEntry.
This is the list header that you initialize to include MemLists that your task has created by call(s) to AllocEntry(). Here is a short program segment that handles task memory list header initialization only. It assumes that you have already run AllocEntry() as shown in the simple AllocEntry() example above.
struct Task *tc;
struct MemList *ml;
/* First initialize the task pointer and AllocEntry() the memlist ml */
if(!tc->tc_MemEntry)
NewList(tc->tc_MemEntry); /* Initialize the task's memory */
/* list header. Do this once only! */
AddTail(tc->tc_MemEntry, ml);
Assuming that you have only used the AllocEntry() method (or AllocMem() and built your own custom MemList), the system now knows where to find the blocks of memory that your task has dynamically allocated. The RemTask() function automatically frees all memory found on tc_MemEntry.
| CreateTask() Sets Up A MemList. The CreateTask() function, and other system task and process creation functions use a MemList in tc_MemEntry so that the Task structure and stack will be automatically deallocated when the Task is removed. |
Summary of Multiple Memory Blocks Allocation Routines
These are routines for allocating and freeing multiple memory blocks with a single call.
This routine initializes memory from data and offset values in a table. Typically only assembly language programs benefit from using this routine. See the Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual: Includes and Autodocs for more details.
Other Memory Functions
Allocate() and Deallocate() use a memory region header, called MemHeader, as part of the calling sequence. You can build your own local header to manage memory locally.
This structure takes the form:
struct MemHeader {
struct Node mh_Node;
UWORD mh_Attributes; /* characteristics of this region */
struct MemChunk *mh_First; /* first free region */
APTR mh_Lower; /* lower memory bound */
APTR mh_Upper; /* upper memory bound + 1 */
ULONG mh_Free; /* total number of free bytes */
};
is ignored by Allocate() and Deallocate().
is the pointer to the first MemChunk structure.
is the lowest address within the memory block. This must be a multiple of eight bytes.
is the highest address within the memory block + 1. The highest address will itself be a multiple of eight if the block was allocated to you by AllocMem().
is the total free space.
This structure is included in the include files <exec/memory.h> and <exec/memory.i>.
The following sample code fragment shows the correct initialization of a MemHeader structure. It assumes that you wish to allocate a block of memory from the global pool and thereafter manage it yourself using Allocate() and Deallocate().
;/* allocate.c - Execute me to compile me with SAS C 5.10
LC -b1 -cfistq -v -y -j73 allocate.c
Blink FROM LIB:c.o,allocate.o TO allocate LIBRARY LIB:LC.lib,LIB:Amiga.lib
quit ;
allocate.c - example of allocating and using a private memory pool.
*/
#include <exec/types.h>
#include <exec/memory.h>
#include <clib/exec_protos.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#ifdef LATTICE
int CXBRK(void) { return(0); } /* Disable Lattice CTRL/C handling */
void chkabort(void) { return; } /* really */
#endif
#define BLOCKSIZE 4000 /* or whatever you need */
VOID main(VOID)
{
struct MemHeader *mh;
struct MemChunk *mc;
APTR block1, block2;
/* Get the MemHeader needed to keep track of our new block. */
mh = (struct MemHeader *)AllocMem((LONG)sizeof(struct MemHeader), MEMF_CLEAR);
if (!mh) exit(10);
/* Get the actual block the above MemHeader will manage. */
if ( !(mc = (struct MemChunk *)AllocMem(BLOCKSIZE, 0)) );
{
FreeMem(mh, (LONG)sizeof(struct MemHeader));
exit(10);
}
mh->mh_Node.ln_Type = NT_MEMORY;
mh->mh_First = mc;
mh->mh_Lower = (APTR)mc;
mh->mh_Upper = (APTR)(BLOCKSIZE + (ULONG)mc);
mh->mh_Free = BLOCKSIZE;
mc->mc_Next = NULL; /* Set up first chunk in the freelist */
mc->mc_Bytes = BLOCKSIZE;
block1 = (APTR)Allocate(mh,20);
block2 = (APTR)Allocate(mh, 314);
printf("Our MemHeader struct at $%lx. Our block of memory at $%lx\n", mh, mc);
printf("Allocated from our pool: block1 at $%lx, block2 at $%lx\n", block1, block2);
FreeMem(mh, (LONG)sizeof(struct MemHeader));
FreeMem(mc, (LONG)BLOCKSIZE);
}
boxHow Memory Is Tagged.Only free memory is “tagged” using a MemChunk linked list. Once memory is allocated, the system has no way of determining which task now has control of that memory.
If you allocate memory from the system, be sure to deallocate it when your task exits. You can accomplish this with matched deallocations, or by adding a MemList to your task’s tc_MemEntry, or you can deallocate the memory in the finalPC routine (which can be specified if you perform AddTask() yourself).
Allocating Memory at an Absolute Address
For special advanced applications, AllocAbs() is provided. Using AllocAbs(), an application can allocate a memory block starting at a specified absolute memory address. If the memory is already allocated or if there is not enough memory available for the request, AllocAbs() returns a zero.
Be aware that an absolute memory address which happens to be available on one Amiga may not be available on a machine with a different configuration or different operating system revision, or even on the same machine at a different times. For example, a piece of memory that is available during expansion board configuration might not be available at earlier or later times. Here is an example call to AllocAbs():
APTR absoluteptr;
absoluteptr = (APTR)AllocAbs(10000, 0x2F0000);
if (!(absoluteptr))
{ /* Couldn't get memory, act accordingly. */ }
/* After we're done using it, we call FreeMem() to free the memory block. */
FreeMem(absoluteptr, 10000);
Adding Memory to the System Pool
When non-Autoconfig memory needs to be added to the system free pool, the AddMemList() function can be used. This function takes the size of the memoryblock, its type, the priority for the memory list, the base address and the name of the memory block. A MemHeader structure will be placed at the start of the memory block, the remainder of the memory block will be made available for allocation. For example:
AddMemList(0x200000, MEMF_FAST, 0, 0xF00000, "FZeroBoard");
will add a two megabyte memory block, starting at $F0 0000 to the system free pool as Fast memory. The memory list entry is identified with "FZeroBoard".
Function Reference
The following are brief descriptions of the Exec functions that handle memory management. See the Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual: Includes and Autodocs for details on each call.
[h] Exec Memory Functions
<thead> </thead> <tbody> </tbody>| Memory Function | Description |
|---|---|
| AllocMem() | Allocate memory with specified attributes. If an application needs to |
| allocate some memory, it will usually use this function. | |
| AddMemList() | Add memory to the system free pool. |
| AllocAbs() | Allocate memory at a specified location. |
| Allocate() | Allocate memory from a private memory pool. |
| AllocEntry() | Allocate multiple memory blocks. |
| AllocVec() | Allocate memory with specified attributes and keep track |
| of the size (V36). | |
| AvailMem() | Return the amount of free memory, given certain conditions. |
| CopyMem() | Copy memory block, which can be non-aligned and of arbitrary length. |
| CopyMemQuick() | Copy aligned memory block. |
| Deallocate() | Return memory block allocated, with Allocate() to |
| the private memory pool. | |
| FreeEntry() | Free multiple memory blocks, allocated with AllocEntry(). |
| FreeMem() | Free a memory block of specified size, allocated with AllocMem(). |
| FreeVec() | Free a memory block allocated with AllocVec(). |
| InitStruct() | Initialize memory from a table. |
| TypeOfMem() | Determine attributes of a specified memory address. |
